Psychological effects of imprisonment on young offenders - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 24 Words: 7133 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Psychology Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? The aim of this dissertation is to examine the claim of authors such as Harrington and Bailey (2005) that a substantial proportion of young offenders in the UK suffer from severe mental illness. In accepting this claim, the secondary aim of this paper is to glean a greater understanding of why this is the case; do these offenders acquire mental illness as a result of the modern prison regime and regardless, why is the modern youth justice system so ineffective in dealing with this seemingly widespread problem? The researcher of this paper shall argue that the currentyouth justice system needs, if it to achieve one of its primary aims,namely to rehabilitate youth offenders and prevent them from becomingrecidivists, to focus their research and practice more heavily on thepsychological processes which cause a young person to offend, so thatsuch offenders, who are clearly suffering from mental problems, can bemore easily identified and, where possible, positively helped toresolve these issues whilst they are serving their custodial sentencesso that upon release these individuals are more likely to desist fromcriminality. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Psychological effects of imprisonment on young offenders" essay for you Create order The principle methodology of this paper will be a literature review,a review of both primary and secondary sources from the subject fieldsof forensic psychology, criminology and penology. Introduction: The primary issue which will be raised and explored throughout thisdissertation is the contention that the current youth justice system,and in particular the youth prison system, is failing to adequatelyaddress the psychological needs (or as they are described by manycriminologists: criminogenic needs) of youth offenders in the UK.Such an argument necessarily involves a simultaneous examination notonly of the statistics which are available regarding the prevalence ofmental illness in youth prisons and the rates of recidivism of thoseyouths who have been previously sentenced to immediate custody, butalso an examination of the latest psychological research in prisons,the current (and, to a lesser extent, historical) policies andpractices pertaining to the treatment of those imprisoned offenderswho have been diagnosed with mental illness and also the writings ofexpert researchers in these relevant fields who provide originalinterpretative insights into the problems associated with menta lillness in youth offenders and potential approaches to minimise thisapparent epidemic. The structure of this review shall take the following form: Thisdissertation will commence with a brief overview of past and presentsystems of caring for children serving custodial sentences and howtheir mental health needs were and are now met, including anexamination of the changing definition of needs in this context. Theresearcher, using research from government enquires, literature andreports concerned with this issue will then seek to identify thoseyouth justice policies and practices which are apparently ineffectiveand/or inappropriate in reducing this problem and, in conclusion, makerecommendations for future necessary/ effective reforms and also futureresearch which should be conducted to assist in our understanding ofthe psychological causes of crime and to assist in the formulation ofsuch reforms. The researcher of this paper is greatly interested in the subject ofthis paper: After reading in Society Guardian articles about our youngprison population the researcher was surprised to learn that there areover 11,000 young people between 15-20 in jail in England and Waleswith a diagnosable mental disorder, that 10% will suffer a severepsychotic disorder in comparison with 0.2% of the general populationand that the UK has the highest number of prisoners under 21, incomparison with the rest of Europe, 3000 of them being held in youthoffenders institutes. Similar surprise ensued from discover of researchconducted by the UK Office for National Statistics which found thatnine out of ten youth offenders in the UK suffer from a mentaldisorder. The researcher feels strongly that more research needs to beconducted into these issues so that these worrying findings can bediluted; it is primarily for this reason that the researcher has chosento conduct this research on that topic. Intending t o pursue a career inthe youth justice system working with young offenders in the UK, theresearcher also feels strongly that a deeper substantive knowledge inthis area will aid not merely his professional development but also hisability to help reduce the incidence of mental disorder in the UK youthjustice system. The researcher concedes that the objectives of this research didchange direction at various points of the review: Initially, the aimwas to identify the current practical failings of the youth justicesystem and to convincingly demonstrate that these failings directly orindirectly contribute to the problematic prevalence of mental illnessin youth offenders and to likewise suggest practical reforms whichshould be employed to reduce this phenomenon; latterly, the researcherunderstood that rather than suggesting changes in practical reform thathe should attempt to identify the failings in the current research andthe strategies employed by the justice system, and to suggestalternative strategies and ideas for future research which will then inturn result in more effective justice practice. The structure of this paper, as described in paragraph two of thisintroduction, has been carefully constructed to complement itsarguments: the historical analysis of trends in UK penal policy andpractice (pertaining to youth offenders) over the past fifty years,with which this paper will commence, provides ample support for thelater contention that the current approach employed by the youthjustice system in the UK to reduce the incidence of mental illness inits prisons is inadequate and also for those policy reforms which willbe recommended by the researcher in this papers conclusions. The Structure of the Literature Review: As noted previously in the introduction, above, the literaturereview of this paper will not confine itself to any one particulardiscipline; after all, the subjects of criminology, forensicpsychology, social work and, to some extent, penology are havededicated varying proportions of their research on the issues withwhich this paper is concerned; namely the prevalence of mental illnessin young offenders in the UK Youth Justice system, in particular thoseoffenders currently serving custodial sentences in young offendersinstitutes, and practical methods for reducing this problematicphenomenon. A clear concern to any researcher conducting amulti-disciplinary literature review of this kind is that the order ofthe analysis is prone to be confusing; a researcher could choose toperform a separate review of the literature from each respectivesubject area or, alternatively, a researcher might choose to make nosuch division but rather separate the review into the relevantquestions and under each separate heading utilize the literature fromany relevant discipline in no particular order. The researcher of thispaper has chosen to adopt the latter of these two approaches; he feelsthat to divide the review analysis according to topic area is whollyartificial, especially in light of the fact that any research orliterature which will be discussed will be wholly relevant to the sameissues pertaining to young offenders. With this methodological approach in mind, the questions which thisliterature review will seek to discuss and, where possible, answer, areas follows: 1] What is defined as mental illness and how has this definition changed over the past 60 years? 2] How prevalent is mental illness in young offenders who arecurrently serving custodial sentences in young offenders institutes inthe UK? 3] To what extent is this a recent phenomenon? And to what extent isthis a phenomenon which is particular to young offenders serving asentence in a secure institution rather than to those young offenderswho are serving non-custodial sentences or those young persons who havenot been involved in the Youth Justice system at all? 4] Historically, how has the UK Youth Justice System responded tothe problem of mental illness in young offenders who are currentlyserving custodial sentences in young offenders institutes? 5] Is there convincing evidence which suggests that there is linkbetween this prevalence of mental illness and the high rates ofrecidivism in young offenders serving custodial sentences? 6] What is the approach which is currently employed by the UK Youth Justice System to tackle this problem? 7] To what extent is the current policy approach of the UK YouthJustice System appropriate in achieving its objectives in this regard? 8] How is this policy approach being implemented by the UK Youth Justice System? 9] Are these practical reforms appropriate in light of the policyapproach adopted to reduce the incidence of mental illness in youthoffenders in the UK? 10] What changes should be made to the current policy and practiceof the UK Youth Justice System to effect a more successful reduction ofthis problem? 11] What further academic research is needed to assist in the formulation of these new policies and practices? 1] What is defined as mental illness or mental health and how has this definition changed over the past 60 years? Any literature review on the prevalence of mental illness in aparticular population, in this case young offenders serving custodialsentences, would be incomplete without a preliminary discussionpertaining to the definition of mental illness or mental health inthat context. Within the context of young offenders, it is interesting to notethat there is very little consistency in the definition of mentalhealth: In fact, a review of over 60 national and local education,health and social care documents (policy, strategy and guidance)revealed little consistency within, as well as, across agencies. Therewere 10 different terms or phrases used to label the positive end ofthe mental health continuum and 15 to describe the negative [JointCommissioning Strategy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Servicesin Kent, Draft Report, 15th January 2007, p6]. This having been said, it does not seem that the definition of mentalhealth in this context is particularly contentious. The Kent andMedway Multi Agency CAMHS Strategy Group have provided a workingdefinition which incorporates each of the individual definitions foundduring their literature review of relevant policy documents: Mentalhealth can be defined as: The ability to develop psychologically,emotionally, intellectually and spiritually, to initiate, develop andsustain mutually satisfying personal relationships, including theability to become aware of others and to empathise with them, and theability to use psychological distress as a developmental process, sothat it does not hinder or impair further development [JointCommissioning Strategy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Servicesin Kent, Draft Report, 15th January 2007, p6]. However, to find a comprehensive definition of mental illness in thiscontext is not so straightforward: It would seem that practitioners inthe field of forensic psychology have divided mental ill-health intothree separate categories separated on the basis of severity ofsymptoms; namely, mental health problems, mental health disordersand mental illness. Mental health problems, the least serious form of mental ill-health,may be reflected in difficulties and/or disabilities in the realms ofpersonal relationships, psychological development, the capacity forplay and learning and in distress and maladaptive behaviour. They arerelatively common, and may or may not be persistent [JointCommissioning Strategy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Servicesin Kent, Draft Report, 15th January 2007, p6]. Mental health disorder is the term subscribed to those persons whoare suffering from persistent mental health problems which affect theirfunctioning on a day-to-day basis. Whilst most young people will atsome stage in their development suffer from mental health problems, itis not normal to expect such persons to suffer from mental healthdisorders. As noted by the Kent and Medway Multi Agency CAMHS StrategyGroup, mental health disorder, as a term, [implies] a marked deviationfrom normality, a clinically recognised set of symptoms or behaviourassociated in most cases with considerable distress and substantialinterference with personal functions or development [JointCommissioning Strategy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Servicesin Kent, Draft Report, 15th January 2007, p6]. Finally, mental illness, the most serious of the three forms ofmental ill-health, can be recognized in those young persons sufferingfrom severe clinical psychosis or neurosis, e.g. those suffering fromschizophrenia. These definitions provide a clear and useful taxonomy from which wecan begin to analyse the statistics on the prevalence of mentalill-health in young offenders in the UK. However, before we commencethis analysis, it is first important to briefly examine the perceivedhistorical relationship between mental ill-health and crime ; afterall, it has often been the case in the past that societies across theworld have attributed certain (if not all) aspects of criminality tosymptoms of mental ill-health, in particular mental disorder and mentalillness. For example, The USSR during the Cold War often incarceratedpolitical criminals on the basis that they must be mentally insanefor holding such opinions and beliefs. Whilst the above example would shock most people of today, thisphenomenon is not that far removed from how the UK government hastraditionally treated the mentally ill: In the UK, mental health carewas for decades provided only in large asylums keeping mentallyill people out of society believing this to be for their own good andthat of their communities. Beginning in the 1950s and accelerating atthe end of the 1980s, government policy switched to providing moreservices in the community and in most cases limiting hospital treatmentto when it is needed most acutely [All-Party Parliamentary Group onPrison Health, House of Commons, November 2006, p2]. In light of the fact that historically the mentally ill have beendealt with in the same way as convicted criminals, it is not toodifficult to understand why there has developed a publicly perceivedlink between mental illness and criminality. This misconception hasalso been given weight by a small number of brutal homicide cases inwhich the perpetrator was schizophrenic; whilst social workers andpsychiatrists of today realise that schizophrenia does not necessarilycause its owners to be criminally violent, public opinion is still notas understanding: Our understanding of mental ill health hasdeveloped [since] that time, though public debate on the topic has notalways been in step the popular assumption that mental ill health andcriminality are inextricably linked needs to be broken and policyinformed by a deeper understanding of the complex links between mentalill health and offending [All-Party Parliamentary Group on PrisonHealth, House of Commons, November 2006, p2]. Therefore, whil st theremay be certain links between mental ill-health and criminality, thereis no intuitive similarity between these two respective phenomena. 2] How prevalent is mental ill-health in young offenders who arecurrently serving custodial sentences in young offenders institutes inthe UK? N.B. At the outset of this section of the literature review it isimportant to remind ourselves that secondary reviews of primary datacan often be misleading or, worse, erroneous. For example, to quote asection from the website of the governments Crime Reduction ToolkitA recent report by the Office for National Statistics, PsychiatricMorbidity Among Young Offenders, found that 9 in 10 young offendersaged between 16-20 years old showed evidence of mental illness. Thisstatement would, using the taxonomy of mental ill-health discussed insection [1] above, appear to suggest that 90% of young offenders in UKPrisons are suffering from severe psychiatric illnesses such aschizophrenia: such a contention is clearly erroneous as if this werethe case then 90% of young offenders in Prison should in fact not be inprison at all but rather in secure mental hospitals. What the statementshould have said is: A recent report by the Office for NationalStatistics, Psychiatric Morbidity Among Young Offende rs, found that 9in 10 young offenders aged between 16-20 years old showed evidence ofmental ill-health. Hopefully this example has shown how careful onemust be when attempting to describe or analyse the data findings fromprimary research. All of the literature and research supports the contention thatmental ill-health among young offenders in UK Prisons is prevalent. Arecent Report suggests that Young people in prison have an evengreater prevalence of poor mental health than adults, with 95% havingat least one mental health problem and 80% having more than one. [Laderet al., 2000, cited by Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health, March 2006,p3]. This same conclusion is reported by Singleton et al. (1998): 95per cent of young prisoners aged 15 to 21 suffer from a mentaldisorder. 80 per cent suffer from at least two. Nearly 10 per cent offemale sentenced young offenders reported already having been admittedto a mental hospital at some point. A more recent research study conducted by Professor RichardHarrington and Professor Sue Bailey on behalf of the Youth JusticeBoard, entitled Mental Health Needs and Effectiveness of Provision forYoung Offenders in Custody and in the Community, found thatapproximately 33% of the young offenders sampled had at least onemental health need, approximately 20% suffered from clinicaldepression, approximately 10% of these young offenders had a history ofself-harm and approximately 10% suffered from post traumatic stressdisorder and severe anxiety . This study also found that approximately5% of the young offenders sampled had symptoms indicative of clinicalpsychosis and that 7% of the sample population seemed to suffer fromhyperactivity. [Harrington and Bailey, 2005]. In conclusion, it seems indisputable that mental ill-health isprevalent among young offenders in the UK, in particular among thoseyouths serving custodial sentences. 3] To what extent is this a recent phenomenon? And to what extent isthis a phenomenon which is particular to young offenders serving asentence in a secure institution rather than to those young offenderswho are serving non-custodial sentences or those young persons who havenot been involved in the Youth Justice system at all? Whilst there is evidence that even as far back as 200 years ago UKPrisons were occupied to some extent by persons who suffered frommental problems, disorders and illness [Thomas Holmes, 1900], it isdifficult to ascertain whether this was due to the same reasons whichcause the phenomenon today, or whether these offenders were simply putin prison because of their mental ill-health, a practice which, asdiscussed above, was common in the nineteenth century. Unfortunately,in regards to the historical po sition, this is not a problem which canever be easily resolved, and it is a question which is still relevantto a discussion of the phenomenon of today: Is the prevalence of mentalill-health among young prisoners due to their treatment within theyouth justice system or did these individuals suffer mental ill-healthprior to their involvement with the justice system? Hagell (2002) p37 suggests that mental ill-health is more prevalent inyoung offenders than in their law-abiding peers, but this still doesnot answer the question of whether the reason that these individualsbroke the law in the first place was because of their mental problems,disorders or illness: there is little doubt that young people caughtup in the criminal justice system do have elevated rates of mentalhealth problems when compared to other adolescents. A conservativeestimate would suggest that the rates of mental illness in these youngpeople is three times as high as that for their peers. Likewise, an article by Sir David Ramsbotham entitled The Needs ofOffending Children in Prison, which was published in the Report fromthe Conference of the Michael Sieff Foundation entitled The Needs ofOffending Children, at p19, that whilst 95% of young offenders incustody are suffering from mental ill-health, only 10% of the generalpopulation are suffering from such problems, disorders or illnesses. This finding is supported in result, if not precise figures, by aresearch study which was conducted by the Mental Health Foundationentitled: The Mental Health of Young Offenders. Bright Futures: Workingwith Vulnerable Young People [Hagell, 2002]. This study stated:Despite methodological hindrances, it is clear from this review of theliterature that there is a consensus that young people who offend arelikely to have much higher than usual levels of mental health problems.Estimates from research studies suggest that the rates of problems wereapproximately three times as high as for their peers in the generalpopula tion. In general, the mental health needs of young offenders arethe same as those of the general adolescent population but more acute.[Hagell, 2002, p28]. Regarding whether the prison regime itself is responsible for thisprevalence, or merely the fact of incarceration, a study by Nicol et al(2000) found that there was very little difference between the levelsof mental needs in those young persons held in prison and those held inother forms of welfare establishment. This implies that the same mentalproblems, disorders and illnesses which lead a young person to beincarcerated in a welfare institution are also present in those youngoffenders who break the law and are subsequently sentences toimprisonment. A study commissioned by the Youth Justice Board [Harrington andBailey, 2005, p8] seemed to suggest that the mental needs of youngpersons were reduced as a result of being sent to Prison: Youngoffenders in the community were found to have significantly more needsthan those in secure careNeeds increased for young offendersdischarged from secure facilities back into the community, suggestingthat needs are only temporarily reduced while in custody. In conclusion, there is no doubt that the prevalence of mentalill-health amongst young incarcerated offenders is not a newphenomenon, although it is impossible to state with any certaintywhether this phenomenon is worse now than it ever has been in historypreviously. Regarding whether this phenomenon is particular to youthoffenders over their law-abiding peers, it would seem that it iscertainly more pronounced with this former group, but also with thoseoffenders serving community sentences and those young persons who arebeing held in welfare establishments. 4] Historically, how has the UK Youth Justice System responded to theproblem of mental illness in young offenders who are currently servingcustodial sentences in young offenders institutes? As noted earlier, In the UK, mental health care was for decadesprovided only in large asylums keeping mentally ill people out ofsociety believing this to be for their own good and that of theircommunities. Beginning in the 1950s and accelerating at the end of the1980s, government policy switched to providing more services in thecommunity and in most cases limiting hospital treatment to when it isneeded most acutely [All-Party Parliamentary Group on Prison Health,House of Commons, November 2006, p2]. During the 1950s and 1960s the link between mental ill-health andcriminality had arguably never been stronger; all prisoners wereregarded as patients who could be effectively treated to prevent themfrom re-offending in the future and whilst little specific attentionwas paid to the individual mental needs of offenders, the types oftreatment reforms which were offered by the Criminal Justice System atthis time were very similar to the kinds of group treatment therapiesbeing offered to those mentally disordered and mentally ill patients inthe mental asylums and hospitals of the day. During the 1970s thisparadigm of offender treatment was abandoned primarily as a result ofresearch studies conducted into the success of some of these treatmentreforms: conclusions from several research studies into theeffectiveness of these criminal treatments on reducing criminalbehaviour strongly suggested that nothing works (Thomas-Peter, 2006,p29). These embarrassing findings caused the pendulum to swin g awayfrom rehabilitation towards a firmer commitment to incapacitation andpunishment through positive custody. During the 1980s, the wave of new public management was born(Thomas-Peter, 2006, p30). This movement focussed heavily upon theprocedural roles of the Prison and Probation Services in reducingre-offending. The Prison service started to contract out some of theirprimary responsibilities in a quest to encourage more efficient servicefrom both their private sub-contractors and also their remaining statePrisons who would have to meet their performance targets to avoid beingprivatised in the same way as so many other Institutions had been.Likewise, the Probation service was reorganised and reintegrated toencourage greater efficiency of performance: [The Probation Service,rather than] a loosely co-ordinated collection of individual socialworkers [became a unified and managed service] with a clearer sense ofdirection and purpose, which was more able to engage on equal termswith other services and to contribute and give effect to nationalpolicies (Faulkner, 2007, p7). During the 1990s researchers revisited the studies conducted in the1970s and found that rather than demonstrating that nothing works,rather they supported the contention that certain types of treatmentinitiatives were working with certain types of individuals: Whilst only10% of a group may have responded well to that treatment, if thesimilarities between those responding offenders could be identifiedthen for this new group, the reform could be said to be verysuccessful. This has lead researchers such as Harper and Chitty (2005)to argue that the new question should not be what works? but whatworks for whom, and why? This paradigm shall be discussed in greaterdetail in section [6] of this literature review. It is important to note that, except for the changes made to theProbation Services in the 1980s, the above discussion summarizes thedevelopments in the paradigm of Criminal Justice generally and does notspecifically answer the question of how the Criminal Justice system hashistorically dealt with the problem of mental ill-health in youngimprisoned offenders. The fact is that even as late as 2002, there was no real unifiedsystem implemented to deal specifically with this particular problem.Research on this topic was sparse and focused rather than on nationalstrategies, on local remedies such as the pioneering work done by theAdolescent Forensic Services in the Midlands. Generally, where YoungOffenders Institutions were involving forensic psychiatrists or mentalhealth social workers this was not being done with the aim of treatmentor rehabilitation but rather for the purposes of assessment. Also,rather than assessing each young offender, these processes tended to beused for those offenders who were clearly suffering from mentalill-health and those offenders who specifically asked for suchassistance. A report published by the Mental Health Foundation in 2002,entitled The Mental Health of Young Offenders. Bright Futures: Workingwith Vulnerable Young People [Hagell, 2002, p23] summarized theposition at that time in the following way: As far a s the MentalHealth Foundation is aware, there is no recent research data availableon the provision of psychological and psychiatric services to youngoffenders across the criminal justice system. However, at the time ofwriting it is clear that, from existing fragmented information, thereis no routine, standardised screening employed across the criminaljustice system and that responses to problems are inadequate andfragmented. Whilst it is true that certain practical initiatives were introducedfrom the mid-nineties, such as Youth Offending Teams, Detention andTraining Orders, Parenting Orders and Child Safety Orders, thediscussion of the effects of these reforms shall be reserved forsections [6] and [9] of this literature review, in which we shallanalyse the current policy and practical approach employed by the YouthJustice System in dealing with the problem of prevalent mentalill-health among young prisoners. 5] Is there convincing evidence which suggests that there is linkbetween mental illness and the likelihood of being sentenced toimmediate custody? Is there convincing evidence which suggests thatthere is link between mental illness and the prevalence of mentalillness and the high rates of recidivism in young offenders servingcustodial sentences? One would be right to question the relevance of this enquiry to themain purposes of this research paper; after all the objective of thispaper is to examine the current strategy in dealing with the problem ofmental ill-health in young offenders institutes and to proposerecommendations for future clinical research and immediate reform.However, the researcher of this paper has chosen to dedicate a sectionof its literature review to the issues raised in the title of thissection because he feels that, if a convincing link between mentalill-health and criminality/criminal recidivism can be demonstrated thenit would provide additional support for the importance of reform inthis area. After all, the youth of today are the adults of the future,and if it can be shown that reducing the prevalence of mentalill-health in young offender institutions has a positive (reducing)effect on the rates of recidivism then the Criminal Justice System maybe compelled to dedicate extra time, money and resource s on furtherresearch in this area and also on the implementation of reformsdesigned to reduce the prevalence of this problem. The first point to note is that there is a body of research whichsuggests that young persons with mental disorders are more likely to bearrested, charged and convicted for their criminal behaviour than thoseyoung people in similar circumstances who do not have such severemental problems [Teplin, 1984]. This is supported by the research studyconducted by Singleton et al (1998) which found that the majority ofprisoners who had been diagnosed as having mental illness had, prior tohaving contact with the Justice System, already had contact with theNHS and other welfare services. These findings cannot be squared easily with the findings of otherresearch studies which suggest that further offending [is] notpredicted by mental health needs or alcohol and drug abuse problems.[Harrington and Bailey, 2005, p8] After all, if mental ill-health canpredict first instance-offending in young persons, then it must alsosurely be a predictor of recidivism in these persons also. Thisresearcher is therefore more inclined to rely upon other researchstudies which suggest that this is not the case: For example, the studyconducted by the Mental Health Foundation [Hagell, 2002, p24] foundthat: The outcomes for young offenders in need of mental healthservices include: further offending and worsening mental healthproblems if the needs are not met. The two are interlinked. While theoffending may have been a risk factor for mental health problems in thefirst place, it has long been understood that mental health problems inturn go on to be a risk factor for continued offending (Kandel , 1978;Rutter et al 1998). Early detection may reduce the likelihood thatyoung offenders will persist into adulthood. 6] What is the approach which is currently employed by the UK Youth Justice System to tackle this problem? As discussed earlier, the current approach employed by the YouthJustice System to deal with this problem is very much one which relieson providing treatment programmes for those youths who are eitherdeemed mentally disordered or ill or those who come forward and requestsuch programmes. This approach can be seen underlying new projectswhich are being implemented to deal with this problem: For example, anarticle published on the 5th March 2007 by the Sainsbury Centre forMental Health states: The Youth Justice Board (YJB) and the Departmentof Health (DH) are to join forces with the Sainsbury Centre for MentalHealth (SCMH) with a major new project to improve services for childrenand young people who offend and have mental health needs. The YouthJustice Service Development project will test out the most effectiveways health and criminal justice services can meet the mental healthneeds of young people in custody or involved with youth offending teamsin the community. The two-year project, which is joint funded by theDH, SCMH and YJB, will review the evidence of what work is mosteffective to address mental health needs. The results will be used todevelop the most promising approaches locally. This is great exampleof what Harper and Chitty (2005) describe as the what works and forwhom treatment paradigm. 7] To what extent is the current policy approach of the UK YouthJustice System appropriate in achieving its objectives in this regard? The approach discussed above in section [6] of this literaturereview is, in the opinion of this researcher, a valid one. It reliesheavily upon clinical research which indicates what works in treatingyouth offenders with mental ill-health, and therefore the JusticeSystem must ensure that such research is promoted (through finance) asa priority. As Professor Sue Bailey writes: The recent evidence basein the field of child and adolescent forensic mental health andjuvenile justice is starting to make a real difference to clinicalpractice, pointing to practice that can offer multiple interventions atmultiple points across the childhood years, and on into adult forensicpractice. Bailey (2003) p1. 8] How is this policy approach being implemented by the UK Youth Justice System? As mentioned previously, in 1997 multi-professional Youth OffendingTeams [YOTs] were introduced across the Youth Justice System in Englandand Wales. Because of the multi-disciplinary makeup of each YOT,assessments made for each young offender who comes before them will betailored to the specific needs of that individual, not merely themental needs but also any other needs which are relevant to thatoffenders criminal behaviour and risk of re-offending. Also, the introduction of a wider range of community sentences such asthe recently implemented Detention and Training Orders, ParentingOrders and Child Safety Orders have been introduced not merely toprovide the courts with an alternative to custodial sentences but alsoto reduce the length of custodial sentence of those individuals who arecurrently serving time in prison. The other practical reforms which have been implemented to reducethe prevalence of mental ill-health in young offenders and the problemscaused by this phenomenon will be discussed in greater detail in thefollowing section of this literature review. 9] Are these practical reforms appropriate in light of the policyapproach adopted to reduce the incidence of mental illness in youthoffenders in the UK? In this section of the literature review we shall examine theparticulars of the current policies and practices and identify thoseareas which are most in need of reform. One of the most comprehensive evaluations of the current approach totacking mental ill-health in youth prisons is provided by Harringtonand Bailey (2005). Their report identified, as we have argued earlier,that the current approach to the problem of mental ill-health in youngprisoners is very much an ad hoc one; Provision of mental healthservices in many secure estate institutions was provided on a sessionalbasis by mental health professionals who had a personal interest in thearea. Continuous provision was subsequently vulnerable to changes inpersonnel and priorities and, unlike community child and adult mentalhealth services, a multi-disciplinary approach was not common.[Harrington and Bailey, 2005, p5] Clearly this is not in-line with thepolicies underlying the introduction of the YOTs which clearly intendedassessments and prospective treatment programmes to be provided by amulti-disciplinary team. Other findings of this research revealed that it was not routinepractice to assess each offender on admission to young offenderinstitutions, the National Offender Management Service (the newlyintegrated Prison and Probation Services) would rely on previousassessments, where infrequently available. The report also found thatwhere assessments had been, appropriate intervention packages wereoften not available either due to under-resourced treatment programmesor the simple lack of any appropriate programmes. Another research study, commissioned by the Healthcare Commission,found, similarly, that Too many young offenders have insufficientaccess to healthcare, particularly the large proportion needing mentalhealth services [HM Inspectorate of Prisons, 1st November 2006]. Thereport found that often YOTs were inappropriately staffed, many lackinga healthcare worker, although did find that generally the introductionof this reform was having positive effects in increasing theaccessibility of mental health services to young offenders. What isclear is that accessibility is simply not enough; to use the old adage,you can lead a horse to water but you cant make him drink. Regarding the introduction of the new range of community Ordersentences, generally these are perceived as a good thing: A Lack ofAlternatives It is a common complaint of judges that they feel obligedto imprison offenders with mental health problems because they can findno alternative way of getting treatment for their condition.[ All-Party Parliamentary Group on Prison Health, House of Commons,November 2006, p6]. 10] What changes should be made to the current policy and practice ofthe UK Youth Justice System to effect a more successful reduction ofthis problem? In line with the what works paradigm of modern Criminal Justice,one general improvement which should be made is a greater ability todisseminate examples of local best practice to the national level. Thismight be achieved by encouraging individual secure facilities toexperiment with new forms of treatment programme and publish theirfindings on the Youth Justice website. As concluded by Harrington andBailey (2005) p 6: There needs to be further development ofaccredited, evidence-based interventions to reduce offending behaviour,with implementation by trained staff. A routine screening process needs to be effectively implemented toensure that the needs of each young offender entering a youth prisonare identified. Harrington and Bailey (2005) p6 recommend thefollowing: Structured and continuous assessment of the mental healthneeds of young offenders is required, using reliable and validatedtools e.g. the Mental Health Screening Interview for Adolescents(SIFA) and the Mental Health Screening Questionnaire Interview forAdolescents (SQIFA). On this point, this researcher agrees with the content of thecurrent Youth Justice Board Screening Manual which states that: Tohelp identify mental illness and potential risk of such problems thereshould be a Closer link between the Youth Justice System and the Childand Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS). This screening policywill only be effective however if the CAMHS are appropriately staffedand resourced which, according to the Report of the Mental HealthFoundation entitled: The Mental Health of Young Offenders. BrightFutures: Working with Vulnerable Young People [Hagell, 2002] p28: arenot sufficiently resourced, organised or varied enough in theirapproach to be able to respond quickly and appropriately. Once the needs of an offender have been appropriately identified byan appropriately staffed multi-disciplinary YOT, this team shouldformulate an appropriate treatment programme which should then beimplemented as continuous support. Such co-ordination will only bepossible if each local authority drafts a careful and consideredstrategy describing routine practice. One might also argue that whilst the government has come a long wayin appreciating the importance of treating both mental and physicalill-health in youth offenders, the public is some way behind. Thisresearcher therefore proposes that the Youth Justice system implement aMental Illness in youth offenders public awareness campaign. As statedby Hagell (2002) p28: A shift in understanding by politicians, policymakers, practitioners and the general public about how importantdiagnosing and meeting young offenders mental health needs is to thelonger-term success of current and new programmes to reduce youthoffending behaviour is also required. Another reform which might be beneficial in the reduction of theprevalence of mental ill-health in young prisoners is an actual reformof the Mental Health Act. As was found by the research studycommissioned by the Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health (March 2006) p5:One of the recurring problems during our prison visits was the factthat there is no statutory provision for the treatment of people withmental health problems. Prisoners cannot be treated for mental healthproblems without consent. The visit to Leeds Prison highlighted theproblems of treating people with severe mental health problems, asprisons do not come under the auspices of the Mental Health Act. Also raised by this Report was the question of whether the Prisonand Probation services were the appropriate bodies to deal with thetreatment of the mentally disordered and ill young prisoners. It hasbeen contended that Many would be much more appropriately cared for inthe National Health Service (NHS) (Coid 1988; Brooke et al, 1996). On this point, this researcher agrees with the content of the currentYouth Justice Board Screening Manual which states that: To helpidentify mental illness and potential risk of such problems thereshould be a Closer link between the Youth Justice System and the Childand Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS). This screening policywill only be effective however if the CAMHS are appropriately staffedand resourced which, according to the Report of the Mental HealthFoundation entitled: The Mental Health of Young Offenders. BrightFutures: Working with Vulnerable Young People [Hagell, 2002] p28: arenot sufficiently resourced, organised or varied enough in theirapproach to be able to respond quickly and appropriately. 11] What further academic research is needed to assist in the formulation of these new policies and practices? Further research needs to be conducted utilizing longitudinalmethodologies to evaluate how individual offenders needs change overtime: These young people frequently move within the youth justicesystem between community and secure sites, but there have been fewlongitudinal studies describing how their needs change. Such studies although difficult to conduct are vital when considering what mentalhealth resources are necessary to meet changing needs. [Harrington andBailey, 2005, p4]. Likewise, as recommended previously in section [12] of thisliterature review, further research needs to be conducted to test newtypes of treatment programmes the result of which can form the basis offuture practical reform. Conclusions: In light of the clearly divided structure of the literature reviewof this paper the conclusions of this research dissertation havealready been made quite clear. In this concluding section of the paperlet us summarize the contents of these conclusions: First, the prevalence of mental ill-health among young offenders whoare currently serving custodial sentences is worryingly high. Second, there is clear evidence that the current practical approachwhich is being implemented by the Youth Justice System is not realisingits full potential in reducing this worrying phenomenon; YOTs aregenerally under-resourced, under-supervised and under-staffed and therange of practical treatment packages available to them is currentlyinadequate; there is currently no effective screening system to ensurethat the mental needs of each young offender are assessed oncommencement of their custodial sentence, and; there are not enoughlocal level YOT strategy plans to aid in the effective operation oftheir functions. Third, the Mental Health Act 1983 needs to be amended to maketreatment compulsory for all young offenders diagnosed with a mentaldisorder or illness. Fourth, the current policy approach of the Youth Justice System isan appropriate one, but it relies heavily upon clinical based trials todesign its practical reforms and as such extra government fundingshould be available for any researchers wishing to test a new type oftreatment programme for mentally ill and/or disordered offenders. Joint Commissioning Strategy for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services in Kent, Draft Report, 15th January 2007. All-Party Parliamentary Group on Prison Health, House of Commons,November 2006. The Mental Health Problem in UK HM Prisons. HMSO:London. Lader et al., 2000, cited by the Report of the Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health, March 2006. Singleton et al. (1998). N Singleton, H Meltzer, R Gatwood, J Coid andD Deasy, Psychiatric Morbidity among Prisoners in England and Wales,ONS, 1998. Harrington and Bailey, (2005). Report Commissioned by the YouthJustice Board entitled Mental Health Needs and Effectiveness ofProvision for Young Offenders in Custody and in the Community. YJB. Prison Reform Trust Troubled Inside: Responding to the Mental Health Needs of Children and Young People in Prison, 2001. Sir David Ramsbotham (2001). The Needs of Offending Children inPrison. The Report from the Conference of the Michael SieffFoundation: The Needs of Offending Children. Hagell (2002). The Mental Health of Young Offenders. Bright Futures:Working with Vulnerable Young People. London: Mental Health Foundation. Nicol et al (2000). Nicol, R., Stretch, D., Whitney, I., Jones, K.,Garfield, P., Turner, K., Stanion, B. Mental health needs andservices for severely troubled and troubling young people, includingyoung offenders, in an NHS region. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 243-261. Barrett, B., Byford, S., Chitsabesan, P. et al (2006). Mental healthprovision for young offenders: service use and cost. British Journal ofPsychiatry, 188, 541-546. Thomas-Peter, (2006). Modern Context of Psychology in Corrections.In Psychological Research in Prisons, Towl, G. (2006) pp24-39.Blackwell Publishing. Faulkner, D. (2007, forthcoming). Prospects for Progress in Penal Reform. To be published in Crime and Criminal Justice. Harper, G and Chitty, C. (2005) The Impact of Corrections onRe-offending: A Review of What Works, Home Office Research Study 291,London, Home Office. HM Inspectorate of Probation (2006) An Independent Review of aSerious Further Offence Case, Damien Hanson and Clifford White andAnthony Rice, an Independent Review of a Serious Further Offence Case,London, HM Inspectorate of Probation. Teplin, L.A. (1984), Criminalizing mental disorder: the comparativearrest rates of the mentally ill, American Psychologist, Vol. 29pp.794-803. Kandel, D.B., Kessler, R.C. Margulies, R.Z. (1978). Antecedentsof adolescent initiation into stages of drug use: A developmentalanalysis. In Longitudinal Research in Drug Use: Empirical Findings andMethodological Issues. Edit. by Kandel, D.B. Washington, D.C:Hemisphere Publishing Corp. Rutter, M. the English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team(1998) Developmental catch-up, and deficit, following adoption aftersevere early privation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39,465-476. Bailey, S. (2003). Young offenders and mental health. Current opinion in Psychiatry, 16, 581-591. Coid(1988). Mentally abnormal prisoners on remand: I Rejected or accepted by the NHS? BMJ, 296, 1779 -1782 Brooke et al, (1996). Point prevalence of mental disorder inunconvicted male prisoners in England and Wales. BMJ, 313, 1524 -1527.

The Importance Of Verbal And Nonverbal Communication .

The Importance of Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Veanna Shaw Fayetteville Technical Community College Abstract Communication is a vital part of everyday life for everyone. It is how individuals express their ideas, feelings, grievances and emotions. There are two types of communication, verbal and nonverbal. This paper will examine how they are each individually necessary and how together they offer unlimited possibilities of communicating any and everything imaginable. The positive and negative attributes of each type of communication will also be explored. Introduction Have you ever been in a conversation where you were trying to explain a process or situation†¦show more content†¦Words are a representation of an object or idea. This means that they are a symbol for something else. For example, we are all male or female but we don’t go by that, we all are given a name at birth. Our name is a symbol of us. It is how we are identified to others. 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American Art Museum Wayne Thiebaud - 1147 Words

Wayne Thiebaud was born 1920 in Mesa, Arizona. Six months after his birth, Thiebaud’s family moved to California, where he would spend most of his life. Growing up in a Mormon community Wayne felt that he had a beneficial childhood, although he would eventually leave the community. Thiebaud worked as a Cartoonist, served in the military, and it wasn’t until later in life that his passion for painting emerged. Thiebaud’s paintings range from cityscapes, to portraits and still lifes. The Smithsonian American Art Museum notes how Wayne, ‘became one of the most well-known Pop artists in America.’(Joann Moser;) After examining his work, I feel it is unfair to call Wayne a Pop Artist because it does not involve reproduction, and does not incorporate features of mass media, popular culture, or advertising. He depicts what he experiences in the real world, and draws on features of everyday life. Through the use of bright colors, textured strokes, and varying perspective Wayne Thiebaud creates works of art which arouse and inspire emotion. On November 1st, 2015 I had the privilege of seeing one of Wayne’s pieces entitled ‘Urban Square’ in the Oakland museum of California. The piece was done with oil on canvas in 1980 and depicts some of San Francisco’s many beautiful features. Growing up I was always surrounded by art, whether through school classes or engagements with my family. My Aunt is an artist, and we often would implement her work around our home. I remember when I wasShow MoreRelatedAnalysis : The Art Museum860 Words   |  4 PagesBoston Cremes. Wayne Thiebaud, 1962, (14 in. x 18 in. Crocker Art Museum) This painting is done with oil on canvas. The painting itself holds visual texture and substance. The repetition and sorting is well executed. With some other works, subject matter which is so simple can come off as bland and boring. Yet Thiebaud was able to turn something so simple into a beautiful piece of art. Wayne Thiebaud uses heavy pigment and defined shadowing. All while the attention to detail is divine. With the well

Estrangement in Joseph Conrads Amy Foster and in Rebecca...

Estrangement in Joseph Conrads Amy Foster and in Rebecca Wests The Return of the Soldier The concept of male estrangement in an alien environment is portrayed in both Joseph Conrad’s short story, Amy Foster, as well as in Rebecca West’s book, The Return of the Soldier. First, there are adverse reactions to the male protagonists’ placement in their environments. The reactions vary between the protagonists and the people they come into contact with. Second, there are similarities and differences between the way the two authors chose to explore the situations presented. Third, both protagonists handle their estrangement differently. It is hard to behave appropriately when you are among peculiar customs. It seems ironic that†¦show more content†¦This causes him to develop â€Å"A complete case of amnesia†¦His unconscious self is refusing to let him resume his relations with his normal life, and so we get this loss of memory† (West 79). In a sense, Chris becomes trapped in his past. Fifteen years earlier to be precise. Because of his amnesia, Chris responds to the reality of his â€Å"current life† with a sort of disbelief. For example, when his wife Kitty is mentioned, he replies: â€Å"I haven’t got a wife! Has some woman been turning up with a cock-and-bull story of being my wife? Because it’s the damnedest lie!† (West 20). Of course his wife has her own take on the entire matter, and one that is hardly full of sympathy and support. For example, West writes on page 31: â€Å"†¦her pink mouth went on manufacturing malice. â€Å"This is all a blind,† she said at the end of an unpardonable sentence. â€Å"He’ s pretending†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Kitty refuses to accept the current situation, and views it with a sort of vindictiveness. In both situations, the protagonist is alienated, and in both situations, others treat the protagonist harshly. The people involved in the harsh behavior are not consistent in both stories. In Amy Foster, the people conducting themselves in a harsh manner are the average citizens with which Yanko Goorall has contact. For example, there is the milkman, who whipped at Yanko; Mrs. Finn, who berated Yanko with an umbrella; and Mrs. Smith who failed to ever trust Yanko. There areShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesinternational terrorism, which were powerfully symptomatic of the unprecedented reach and intensity of the processes of globalization on either side of the otherwise unremarkable last and first years of the old and new millennia, represented both a return to trends reminiscent of the opening decades of the twentieth century and a major break from the prevailing dynamics of the cold war. In addition to the problems posed for conceptualizing the twentieth century as a discrete era of world history due

Resource Dependence Theory Perspective †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Resource Dependence Theory Perspective. Answer: Introduction: Strategic choices are related to organizational success. This is shown in instances where organizations that make choices strategically end up being more efficient that those that do not make strategic decisions. There are also different deterministic theories that aid in explaining how organizations work. Some of these theories include; Resource Dependency Theory and the Institutional Theory. Population ecology also assists in explaining the different organization actions and outcomes (Sderberg, 2013). Philosophically, determinism states that all events are determined by causes that were previously in existence. These take different factors into account such as moral choices. It is said to preclude human free will. This is because it entails that humans cannot act in a manner that is different from the way in which they normally do(Silvestre, 2016). Conversely, indeterminism holds the view that some of the events in the universe do not have a cause that is deterministic but they simply occur at random. In turn, this brings in a moral responsibility and leads to the creation of an external cause that is deterrent, and that can then affect the actions that will take place after that. Therefore, determinism says that all actions are as a result of preceding factors and this makes behavior unpredictable. Science is based on this causal law of determinism. On the contrary, free will is the human ability to choose the manner in which they will behave which means that they are self-determined (Fekadu, 2014). Incidentally, people choose whether they will commit a certain crime or not. The Resource Dependence Theory arose from the work of Gerald Salancik and Jeffrey Pfeffer in the year 1978. This theory is made up of different arguments. First, it says that organizations have power over a focal firm. As a result, the organizations can influence the way in which different firms behave, if they have control of the vital resources in the firms ongoing operations and if these resources cannot be acquired elsewhere (Narain, 2014). Second, the external environment of an organization is made up of other organizations which have their specific interests and objectives(Drees Heugens, 2013). Resource dependence also helps organizations to come up with strategies that can be used in dealing with dependence relationships that are problematic. The resource dependence theory, therefore, relies on the principle that organizations need to interact with other organizations that are in its environment with the aim of acquiring resources (Biermann Harsch, 2016). These transactions are beneficial to the different organizations but they may also bring about dependencies that are not good. The resources that are required by organizations are scarce and may not be readily available. These resources may also be controlled by actors who are uncooperative. This in turn may bring unequal exchanges and result in power differences. To reduce these high dependency levels that may be in existence, it is paramount for organizations to develop strategies that will enhance their position when it comes to bargaining in transactions where these resources are involved. These strategies may include; development of links with other organizations, diversifying their production, increasing their production levels, and making use of political actions(Singha, Sum Chuong, 2011). Diversification is an important strategy because it will result in a reduction of the dependence levels that an organization has with other firms, and it will also increase its leverage and power. Making use of political actions is also a good strategy because it will bring in government control which will reduce the monopoly power of these organizations that have power and get rid of any cartels that may be in existence. There are also different adaptations that different organizations take in relation to dependencies. Some organizations align their internal elements with the pressures that they face from their environments while other organizations attempt to alter their environments. In reference to organizational actions, Research Dependence Theory, therefore, explains how organizational behavior works. Three concepts that can be explained in an organization with the use of the Research Dependence Theory are; organizational constraints, effectiveness, and the organizational environment (Malatesta Smith, 2014). Organizational effectiveness is the efficiency with which an organization creates actions and outcomes that are acceptable. Moreover, the level of an organizations effectiveness can be measured by how well an organization can meet its stakeholder demands. The factor that holds the most significance in depicting how effective an organization is is its level of external judgment in its organizational activities(Sahlin-Andersson, Greenwood, Oliver Suddaby, 2012). The use of an external perspective is important in describing how effective an organization is as opposed to the use of an internal perspective which conversely shows efficiency levels. Organizational environment is another concept in the contextual perspective. The environment consists of all events that affect the actions that take place in an organization as well as the outcomes. However, different events influence organization actions in different ways. Some organizations are isolated from certain events in the environment which in turn reduces the impact of the events on the organizations. On the other hand, other organizations are not aware of the changes that are occurring in the environment. The third concept used in the contextual perspective is that of constraints. This concept shows the probability of an action being taken in response to a situation. If there is a higher probability of one response being used, this means that this action is constrained. Therefore, a constraint exists when a response to a given action is not random but is a choice that is properly argued. This concept assumes that the different effects on the behavior depicted in organizations face the constraint of situational contingencies (Malatesta Smith, 2014). This concept of constraint requires for the organization to make use of strategic choices to determine the optimal course of action that should be taken. These three concepts that are of the contextual perspective are the major components of the Resource Dependency Theory. This theory also uses two very important variables which are uncertainty and dependency. The institutional environment in which an organization is situated can affect the manner in which formal structures develop in the organization to a higher degree than even market pressures. Structures that are innovative and increase the technical efficiency of the organizations that adopt them earlier on are legitimized (Sahlin-Andersson, Greenwood, Oliver Suddaby, 2012). At the point of the legitimization level, if there is a failure to adopt the innovations, it is considered to be negligent and irrational. The existing and new organizations will adopt these structural forms regardless of the fact that they may not increase efficiency. Different institutional myths are accepted without good reason, for the organization to have legitimacy in the environment related to the institution. Organizations use the structures that are being used by others in their environment. These include; organizational roles, procedures, and job titles. The prominent display and use of these different institutional trappings of legitimacy aid in the preservation of an atmosphere whereby actions taken by organizations are based solely on good faith. This legitimacy that is in existence in the institutional environments aids in the survival of the organizations. These structures can, however, lead to reduced efficiency in the organization and lower the level of competitiveness that an organization has in its technical environment. Some organizations therefore put different measures in place in a bid to lower the negative effects. Incidentally, many organizations will separate their technical activities from their legitimizing structures. The net effect brought about by institutional pressures is to raise the homogeneity levels of the structures in an organization in an institutional environment. There are three different types of pressures that make firms to adopt similar structures. These include the normative pressures, coercive pressures, and the mimetic pressures. Normative pressures occur when this similarity arises from the presence of professional groups who possess the same approaches and attitudes. This comes about due to the hiring process where the workforce hired have similar characteristics. Conversely, mimetic pressures come from the existence of uncertainty in the organization. Finally, coercive pressures are as a result of influence or legal mandates that come from other organizations that they depend on (Malatesta Smith, 2014). There was a research that was conducted in California to examine how three administrative services that are in public schools in California have grown from the Institutional Theory standpoint. It was concluded that whenever there exists high cooperation and consensus levels within the institutional environment, the process of adoption of structures that are innovative is long-lasting and steady (Rodriguez Sanders, 2015). However, in circumstances where the institutional environment was found to be unfocused and contentious, the diffusion of innovative structures was seen to be tentative and low. This research also showed that during the periods of high coercive pressures, organizations tend to adopt new structures quickly. When the coercive pressures are low, they adopt the new structures in a much lower rate. The increased levels of adoption, however, bring about legitimacy in the institutional environment which in turn accelerates the rate at which the new structures are adopted (Malatesta Smith, 2014). It is therefore evident that the early organizations usually adopt new structures with an aim to improve their efficiency levels while later organizations adopt the structural forms in a bid to maintain legitimacy. Population ecology is a branch of ecology that explain the dynamics and structure of different populations. It explains how populations interact with their environment and how they change over time. Population ecology is an important concept in conservation biology because it aids in the prediction of whether a given species will persist in a given habitat. The simple population models make use of four very important variables. These are; birth, death, emigration, and immigration. In the 18th century, Darwin spoke about the struggle for existence. This was seen to come about due to the exponential population growth and the arithmetic growth in food supply. Over time, population outgrows the existing resources which in turn leads to the survival of the fittest species (Oord Witteloostuijn, 2017). This is the phenomenon whereby the fastest and strongest species survive while those that are unable to compete become extinct. Organizations can be classified as generalist or specialist organizations. Specialist organizations exploit their environment to the maximum and take on the risk of undergoing changes in their environment. On the contrary, generalist organizations do not largely exploit their environment and thus have a greater level of security. Organizations are also normally classified into various species that live together in an environment and continually change over space and time. These different changes which usually occur in the environmental level lead to the best fitting organizations being selected over time(Rodriguez Sanders, 2015). Therefore, the organizations that survive are those that best fit the environment in which they are in. There are other routes that organizations may take in order to survive. These include the use of sustainable systems and adaptations. Organizations ecology also deals with how much an organization is diversified. There is a need to view the ways in which the existing social conditions affect the rate at which new organizations and organizational forms are created, the rates at which organizations end, and the rate at which changes occur in organizations. With a basis on population ecology, the focus of these activities is on evolutionary dynamics of the different processes that affect the diversity of organizations (Oord Witteloostuijn, 2017). Learning institutions are challenging the way traditional methods of learning looked like. Today, due to the presence of technology, many institutions of learning have adopted technology in the learning process. The focus on learning is now focused on students with an emphasis on experiential and engaged learning. There are also more teachers who have taken up self-regulated, problem based, and authentic learning methods into their curriculums. As the ecology of the learning population continues to evolve, there are new players who come in. For instance, in the recent past, distant learning is a tool that has been widely used by many learners. It is important for organizations to take into consideration the value added by these new actions. It is vital for learning institutions to ensure that the learning process is sustainable and that the needs of all the learners are met (Malatesta Smith, 2014). In businesses today, technology has been widely used by different firms in a bid to ensure that they survive and remain competitive. Incidentally, many firms have made use of technology in their supply chains. Many firms make use of RFIDs and GPS trackers to ensure that they can track the movements of their consignments and to be able to provide their customers will good customer services. Technology is also being used in the production and manufacturing processes of organizations. Therefore, it is paramount that organizations continually adapt to their environment to remain competitive and avoid being replaced by other better-adapted organizations. Organizations that have an effective process of making strategic choices can make strategic decisions that ensure sustainable growth. Proper strategic planning enables organizations to identify the issues that are most important and then address them. Therefore, organizations need to adapt continually to remain competitive. They also need to take measures that ensure that they are not fully dependent on other organizations by using different suppliers as well as diversifying their production. By so doing, they will be able to survive turbulent periods and remain ahead of their competition. References Biermann, R., Harsch, M. (2016). Resource Dependence Theory.Springer Link. Drees, J., Heugens, P. (2013). Synthesizing and Extending Resource Dependence Theory A Meta-Analysis.Journal Of Management; Sage Journals. Fekadu, K. (2014). The paradox in environmental determinism and possibilism: A literature review.Journal Of Geography And Regional Planning,7(7). Malatesta, D., Smith, C. (2014). Lessons from Resource Dependence Theory for Contemporary Public and Nonprofit Management.Wiley Online Library. Narain, V. (2014). Determinism, Free Will, and Moral Responsibility.The Humanist.Com. Silvestre, R. (2016). Karma Theory, Determinism, Fatalism and Freedom of Will.Springer Link,11(1). Oord, A., Witteloostuijn, A. (2017). The Population Ecology of Technology: An Empirical Study of US Biotechnology Patents from 1976 to 2003. Rodriguez, A., Sanders, I. (2015). The role of community and population ecology in applying mycorrhizal fungi for improved food security.The ISME Journal. Sahlin-Andersson, K., Greenwood, R., Oliver, C., Suddaby, R. (2012). Institutional theory in organization Studies. Singha, P., Sum, D., Chuong, C. (2011). A resource dependence theory perspective of ISO 9000 in managing organizational environment.Journal Of Operations Management,29(1,2). Sderberg, J. (2013). Determining social change: The role of technological determinism in the collective action framing of hackers.New Media Society; Sage Journals.

Work Life Balance free essay sample

Managing work life balance Introduction This essay is going to examine managing work life balance and how organizations are going to manage it in contemporary human resource management with relevant organizational examples. Moreover, we will look at the current issues and the problems of work life balance. Work life balance (WLB) is a term which refers to the concept that employees split their time between work and the other aspects of personal lives. It used to maintain a balance between work and leisure activity such as family life. It measured the amount of time on the work compare with the time on spending with family or other leisure activities. It is difficult to measure the efficiency and the balance between work and life. Based on the assumptions of diversity management which aim to provide a positive workplace environment and accept the individual differences from different background, gender, race etc in order to maintain equality in the workplace. Therefore, it is important that organizations introduce flexible working arrangement in terms of providing positive working environment to employees (Caleb Rosado, PH. D, 2006). Theoretical Review Due to the recent change of WLB, people shifted the focus on the balance on work and family roles as well as the outside work. Work life balance is important to employees because it represents peoples psychological well being and satisfaction between work and life (J. Rantanen U. Kinnunen, 2011). WLB can be traced back to previous studies of women having multiple roles throughout their lives as women are representing as mothers, wives and paid worker where they might experience overload work and cause them stressful which suggest it needs appropriate working arrangements in order to increase their job satisfaction (Barnett and Marshall,1993). The integrated concept of WLB is aiming to manage employees effectively while they are suffering from multiple roles conflict in lives and work and attempt to minimized job dissatisfaction and stress levels. However, as most of the organizations are seeking to provide a positive workplace to the employees, they provide several policies for the employees in order to increase the flexibility such as telecommuting opportunities for workers who want to spent more time at home to look after young children or offer flexible work schedules, also, some organizations provide an on-site fitness programs, therefore, it increases employees motivation because they are working in a positive workplace environment (  Heidi Cardenas) . In general, it suggested that UK has a flexible workforce labor with family life to maintain the balance between work and life. This lead to a higher employment and growth in the contemporary diversity management (Nick Bloom, Tobias Kretschmer, 2009). Current issue According to the current work life balance issues in diversity management, it suggested it become an very popular issue to debate over the world and more people and management are paying attention to it, where it increases the conscious of people aware of this problem. Managing WLB has been increased in the last 2 decades (De Bruin Dupuis, 2004), which is a recent change from previous management style. In addition, a lot of private enterprises also aware the problem of work life balance as their human resource management. This has become an major issue in todays management since nowadays employers tend to use fewer employees to cope with difficulties and problems as they want to reduce the costs, therefore the jobs are more complicated and it increased their workforce so it becomes more difficult for employees to maintain a balance within work and life, such as home management, child care etc (Douglas T. Hall) as well as the levels of pressure and working time. Secondly, the demographic changes rapidly so it affects the labor such as gender, age, religion, workplaces etc (Dr Mark Wickham, Miss Melissa Parker Simon Fishwick). Due to the increasing number of working mothers, it usually applied to women that they need to maintain a balance between working hours and career break arrangements such as maternity leave. It stated that there is an enormous increase of working mothers in contemporary world, which suggested that 66. % of mothers are working compare with only 23% of mothers are working full time in 1996 (Guardian), so organizations are required to offer suitable flexible working arrangements for mothers. Therefore, it increases the awareness that organizations has to introduce flexible working arrangement to due with this issue in terms of being ethical and equality. In some circumstances, it suggested that rather than following by a tradition that women should look after child ren, it offers paternity leave for fathers as well in order to encourage fathers to active their role in the family (Gill Kirton Anne-marie Greene, 2005). According to the diversity management, it might be seen as inequality of men and women employees as women tend to have longer career break arrangement due to the maternity leave, employers might recruit new employees to replace them and this might damage for women future career prospects (Gill Kirton Anne-marie Greene, 2005). But on the other hand, according to the current issues, it argued that the gender equality of work life balance has changed in the 20 century. It suggested that there are significant increase of men are contributing to childcare rather than following by the tradition that women should stay at home and look after the children (Maron, 2009). By looking at the current issue, it can be seen that it is difficult to manage work and family life as employees (men and women) need to take a parental role of looking after children as well. Therefore, the government set some regulations to protect them. For instance, they promoted the Family and Medical Leave Act in 1993. The Family and Medical Leave Act 1993 has created an huge impact towards the organizations. The organization has to provide at least 12 weeks leave in a year for their birth, individuals or family illness. This act enable employees to look after the sick children or elderly etc (Judith  M. Nixon). Case Study There are few case studies with real organizational examples which suggested the management of work life balance in the contemporary organizations. Also, t covers different aspects of the practice in work life balance and stated the current diversify management style in different countries. One of the case study is Motorola which is a company founded in 1928 U. S. It delivers network communications and internet to individuals, companies and homes. Motorola operates in a global environment where their competitive advantage is to operate 24 hours a day and seven days a week. Due to this competitive advantage, Motorola has to offer flexible working time to employees. It becomes a very important issue to Motorola for employees having an equal time split and balancing between work and life time as diversity management aims to support employees with equal opportunity and forecasting a happy working environment. It suggested that there is change in Motorola from the past where full time workers work seven 12-hour shift in two week period and 2 full time workers share the job together and split their working hours equally. One of the employee called Mary McDonald who is a single parent with two children applied the job and she claimed that job sharing and working hours are very flexible, therefore this works very well with her family life while she is looking after two children. Motorola provides her a flexible working arrangements and work-life balance, therefore it increases her motivation and satisfaction at work by providing positive workplace environment according to the aim of diversity management (Gill Maxwell, 2008). In addition, Motorola stated that most of the job sharing workers are women where most of them are unable to work as a full time workers according to their family life and commitments. However, Motorola offers an alternative opportunities for women who wants to maintain a balance between work and family life. This arrangement has created an advantage for women especially when women return work after their maternity leave which is easier for them to catch up their work and they have enough time to look after children which reduce the levels of stress at their work. Motorolas flexible working arrangements has introduced new work life balance initiatives in contemporary organizations. Another case study is about IKEA which is a well-know home furnishing retailer which sells home furniture with a low prices. It is a global company with more than 150 stores distributed all over the world. The human resources policies relies at the heart of the IKEAs strategy as they believe the success of an organizations depends on the commitment of the employees, therefore IKEA emphasis heavily on the equality and working arrangements to the employees (Gill Maxwell, 2008). According to the IKEAs management style, it focuses heavily on the family life, leisure activities and healthy environment. This recognizes the importance of work life balance. For instance, IKEA offers a coffee breaks to workers for interaction in a positive environment. More importantly, IKEA provides flexible career break arrangements such as marriage leave, parental leave, childcare leave or moving house leave etc. This enable workers to deal with their own or family problems. Furthermore, IKEA introduced health promotion to employees which allow employees to have a healthy working time. IKEA offers foot care and massage for them during their working time. It provides physical health care to employees as the managers of IKEA thought workers are very tired of often working with their foot. This is a totally new work life balance initiatives in organizations where they offer flexible hours of work and arrangements but also physical health care. Therefore, employees are motivated and pleasant for working in the positive working environment. As I mentioned above, organizations offer fitness and health programs to workers while they are stressed at work. This has created a positive impact on workers and the organization and reinforced the importance of work life balance programs as more people aware with this issue. It is important to note that diversity managers are required to provide a range of work life balance programs to employees in order to foster a pleasant working environment (wisegeek). After discussing the real organizational examples, it shows that WLB creates a positive impact on organizations and performance as well as becoming more effective of managing employees flexibility (Nick Bloom, Tobias Kretschmer, 2009). This has enlightened and developed the practice of diversity management where it can be seen that organizations are continuing developing the issue of work life balance in terms of being ethical and equality. Organizations are getting more familiar with the practice of work life balance but there are still some problems should be highlighted in the current diversity management. Problems Many organizations perceived work life balance could be seen as a competitive advantage as providing flexible working arrangement can enhance individuals performance which affects the whole company because employees are motivated and feel being valued in the organization such as IKEA offer foot massage for employees and it can be seen as an competitive advantage. But, it could be argued that what is meant by good practices of work life balance in organizations as it is difficult to measure the effectiveness of the appropriate work life balance to employees. On the other hand, gender has been considered a major issue of work life balance, many people still believe on the assumptions of women are the identity as housewives and women careers would directly affect the commitments and performance at work. This is the major issue that organizations need to take into account in developing diversity management. Organizations could provide more working opportunities to women and prove that even though they stop working during their pregnancy it doesnt affect much to the organizations as nowadays women are working harder compare to the past. For instance, Motorola offers job sharing which benefits and support women even they are pregnant. In addition, providing flexible work arrangement or job sharing could easily lead to conflicts because people could easily mixed up their schedules and responsibilities with the others. This might create a conflict and inconvenience to organizations. Therefore, organizations should take into account that they should provide a clear working arrangement between workers. Recommendations After highlighted the problems of work life balance and based on the organizational examples I have suggested, I recommend that manager should be more diversified in order to deal with different problems because managing flexibility may cause a lot of conflicts or misunderstanding, therefore, managers should allocated a clear working schedules or responsibilities to employees so workers understand what they are doing and it will increase the working efficiency. Providing a good communication to employees may ensure the job sharing responsibilities and break schemes. In the case of Motorola, offering a split time worker between workers, the managers should set out a clear schedule for the workers in terms of splitting time and responsibilities equally to avoid any conflicts. Also, managers should provide support to employees while employees are having maternity or sick leave etc, such as providing a paid sick leave because employees tend to fear of being discriminated or dismissal when they report their illness, therefore, a diversity manager should provide a paid sick leave to support them and ensure they wont be discriminated (Xenia Scheil-Adlung Lydia Sander, 2010). In addition, managers should provide more support to woman during their maternity leave such as telecommuting to ensure they can catch up their work easily when they back to work in terms of equity. Conclusions In conclusion, after discussing the assumptions and current issues of work life balance as well as the problems highlighted, it suggested that it is difficult to measure the effectiveness of work life balance. It all depends on the nature of the job due to the job difficulties and the levels of stress from the work itself. Also, it relies on the employees itself of managing a balance between work and family life and their own experiences where organizations have no control over. From an organizational view, to manage work life balance effectively at the workplace, they can promote a message to employees the importance of work and life and prevent any conflicts between work and non-wok interaction if they want to build up a good employees relations with the organization (J. Rantanen U. Kinnunen, 2011). Organizations are still seeking to develop the diversity management, therefore, it is important to provide a positive workplace environment for employees as well as the equality. However, living in a diversified culture, every organizations should assist employees to maintain a good balance of work and family life but it requires the co-operation between managers and employees in order to provide a positive workplace environment by making use of the existing policies.